History

Anishinaabe People

Anishinaabe (Anishinaabek) refers to a large group of culturally and linguistically related people that live in both Canada and the United States. They are one of the largest Indigenous groups in Canada, and most of these nations are mainly concentrated around the Great Lakes in both countries. In Canada, Anishinaabek live south of the Ottawa River Valley, all the way to Lake St.Clair. Many First Nations are located in southern Ontario and even more span west across Northern Ontario into the plains of Saskatchewan. The Ojibwe, Odawa, Potawatomi, Algonquin, and Mississauga make up the Anishinaabek tribes that mainly populated and controlled the Great Lakes Basin by the late 1600’s. 

There are many alliances and different agreements with the various Anishinaabe groups. One of them is the Three Fires Confederacy. 

Three Fires Confederacy 

This confederacy is made up of the Potawatomi, Odawa and Ojibwe. Through this confederacy they could understand how they would proceed with the settlers and relationship they would have once they came. The Odawa people were to be the traders; who did the trading and formed relationships with the settlers. The Ojibwes were said to be the knowledge keepers; the ones who hold the ceremonies and pass down knowledge to the nations. The Potawatomi were said to take care of the fire, to make sure they were burning brightly.  

Ways of Life

The Anishinaabe had a sophisticated society with their own belief systems, community laws and code of moral principles. They believe in one creator – The Great Spirit (Gitchi-Manitou). They believe every living thing has a spirit and should be treated with respect and as an equal. Anishinaabe people also established a framework of governance that was given to them by the creator and passed down through each family over generations. This traditional governance structure was called the Clan System (Doodem). There were seven original Anishinaabek Clans, each representing an animal and the teachings they provide. The people were knowledgeable about their environment, they took only what they needed from Mother Earth to survive and would always provide a sacred offering of Tobacco (Asemaa) to an animal who had given up its life for food. They traded with other tribes for goods they did not have or that were scarce in their territories, and with this, there was no concept of property ownership or individual wealth. Hunters provided food for all lodges and mothers helped raise each others children, everyone worked together. 

The Migration of the Anishinaabe (Chibimoodaywin’)

The Anishinaabe originated on the northeast coast of what is now Canada and the United States. The number of people from the Ojibwe and Algonquin nations was remarkable. As told in the Mishomis Book, ‘The Migration Story’, “The people were so many and powerful that if one was to climb the highest mountain and look in all directions, they would not be able to see the end of the nation.’

Nations and clans scattered the land. There were berry pickers, wood carvers, fishermen, hunters, canoe makers, and stone carvers. There were people who were in charge of growing and harvesting plants from the gardens of Mother Earth and were referred to as the Gitigay’wininiwug’ (planters or keepers of the Creator’s garden.) There was always active communication between all groups of people, as they worked together as a community.

To traverse and migrate across the vast lands, the Anishinaabe used canoes on the waterways and a system of trails by foot. In the winter, they used sleds and dog teams to travel for extra power and strength. There was plenty of food from the land and water, and the Anishinaabe knew how to survive in any type of weather or season.

There was much discussion amongst the nations about the great migration to the west. Some people stayed behind but many traveled west to new lands.

There has been much discussion about the location of the first stopping place of the migration, but it is generally agreed upon that it is located on one of two islands along the St. Lawrence river, around the Montreal Area.

The Anishinaabe slowly moved down the southern shore of the St. Lawrence River, and made a major stop at the Animikee’ wabu (the place of the Thunder Water) or as known today as Niagara Falls. From here the people moved “to a place where two great bodies of water are connected by a thin, narrow river.” This river connects Lake St. Clair and Lake Huron in the North to Lake Erie in the south. It was at this stopping that the Anishinaabe drove back a large group of Iroquois warriors who were pursuing them.  Later on, the Iroquois gave the Ojibwe a Wampum Belt to represent their relationship with each other and peace was finally sealed between them.  After this stop they carried on westward to the eastern shores of Lake Michigan. At this stop many people split off in groups to find ways of crossing the ‘great water’. Some of these groups went south and believed the direction of the migration had become lost. 

To find out more details about the Great Migration, click the link below:

The Mishomis Book – The Voice of the Ojibway – Chapter 14 ‘The Migration of the Anishinabe’ By Edward Benton-Banai

Treaties

Treaties are agreements made between the Government of Canada, Indigenous groups and provinces and territories that define everlasting rights and obligations for all sides. 

The treaty making process between Indigenous peoples and the Crown was formally established by the Royal Proclamation of 1763 following the Seven-Years-War. As European settlement and colonization began to increase, agreements needed to be made in order to ensure peaceful relations, and resource sharing between Indigenous and non-Indigenous peoples. 

Even to this day, all Canadian citizens (Indigenous or non-Indigenous), are treaty people. Treaties are to be held with high regard, as they previously and presently influence the foundation of Canada. There isn’t much talk about Treaties in Canada and few Canadians know much or anything about them. Treaties are living agreements between First Nations and the Crown for the benefit of all people who live in treaty territory, and are recognized and affirmed in Canada’s Section 35 of the Constitution Act, 1982. 

There are 46 treaties and other agreements (land purchases by the Crown) in Ontario alone, and the treaties that were previously established are still as relevant today as the day(s) that they were signed. With this being said, it is imperative that Canadians understand the foundational importance of treaties to Canadian citizens as well as the land they reside on. 

(The Government of Canada webpage provides a map of the various treaties throughout Canada. It is important to note that the larger extent of what we now call Canada is treaty territory.)

The Government of Canada has made a total of 70 historic treaties in Canada signed between 1701 and 1923. 

These treaties include: 

The process of creating Treaties involved both parties recognizing and securing their futures and relations with the land and resources. The history of Canada reveals that in many ways the treaty agreements have been violated through discriminating policies and practices.

Indigenous peoples have lived on the land we now call Canada for thousands of years, with their own unique cultures, identities, traditions, languages and institutions. If honoured and followed correctly, Treaties can provide a framework for living together and sharing the land Indigenous peoples originally occupied. The agreements in the Treaties provide foundations for ongoing cooperation and partnership as we move forward together to advance reconciliation.

 

Indian Act

The Indian Act 1876 is a Canadian federal law issued by Crown-Indigenous Relations and Northern Affairs Canada (CIRNAC). The Indian Act governs matters pertaining to Indian status, bands, and Indian reserves. The Act authorizes the Canadian federal government to regulate and administer the affairs and day-to-day lives of registered Indians and reserve communities. It defines who qualifies as an ‘Indian’ and who does not. By this, the authority of the federal government has very strong, overarching political and governance control over every aspect of Indigenous communities and life. Communities were imposed to implement ‘western’ governing structures in the form of band councils, to control their rights to practice their own form of culture and traditions. The Act also allows the government to determine the land base of Indigenous people by implementing reserves, more accurately referred to as First Nations. Nearly every aspect of Indigenous rights and life is controlled and monitored. The Indian Act holds a long history of assimilation policies that intended to terminate the cultural, social, economic, and political distinctiveness of Indigenous peoples by converting them into mainstream Canadian life and values. While the Indian Act has undergone numerous amendments since it was first passed in 1876, It still resembles and follows its original form, but with some adjustments to its language. 

To read the full Act, click here.

Residential schools operated from the 1880s into the late 20th century. They were a part of an extensive school system across Canada that was set up by the Canadian government and ran by religious churches, with the main objective of educating Indigenous children by assimilating them into Christian, Euro-Canadian ways of living.¹ The residential school system also forbade Indigenous children to acknowledge their Indigenous heritage and culture or to speak their own languages. On top of the dehumanizing goals of these schools, Indigenous families had no option to attend or not. Children as young as the age of 3 were kidnapped, or taken from their families to attend these schools, and some of these children were never seen again by their families. In addition to the trauma of being taken away, many Indigenous children endured physical, sexual, verbal, and emotional abuse. Not only that, disease and poor sanitation resulted in the death of thousands of children. In 2021, numerous unmarked gravesites at the locations of these institutions were found. These gravesites uncovered the remains of hundreds to thousands of young children; the causes of death are unknown.¹

Indian Residential School students and staff, Regina, Saskatchewan, 1908.
Source: Library and Archives Canada, e010949763

A group of nuns with Indigenous students, Port Harrison, Quebec, circa 1890
Source: H. J. Woodside. Library and Archives Canada, PA-123707

The education provided was not like the education European students were receiving at the time. The lessons mainly focused on prayer and manual labour in agriculture, light industry such as woodworking, and domestic work such as laundry work and sewing. At some locations, the boys would tend to the care of livestock, while the girls would prepare meals for the students. On top of the lack of proper education and learning, the children were severely punished if any of the strict rules were broken.¹ 

Residential schools systematically undermined Indigenous, First Nations, Métis and Inuit cultures across Canada. They also disrupted families, leaving scars and causing intergener-

ational trauma and PTSD. With the intense oppression received by these institutions, a significant loss of language, culture, spirituality and connectedness has been lost. Because children were removed from their families, many students grew up without experiencing a nurturing family life and did not obtain any skills to raise their own families. The devastating effects of the residential schools have left a deep impact that has significantly affected today’s generations and many Indigenous communities. The residential school system is widely considered as a form of genocide because of the purposeful attempt from the government and churches to eradicate all aspects of Indigenous cultures and in some narratives, the people themselves. 

From the 1990s onward, the government and churches involved (Anglican, Presbyterian, United, and Roman Catholic) began to acknowledge the residential school scheme designed to “kill the Indian in the child.” Unbelievably, the last residential school officially closed in 1997. In 2008 Prime Minister Stephen Harper of the Conservative government issued a formal apology in Parliament for the damage done by the residential school system. Even though various apologies were given, many Indigenous people did not feel it was sincere, as actions speak louder than words.¹ 

Read and watch more of Prime Minister Stephen Harper’s apology here: Government apologize for residential schools in 2008

Lejac Residential School – Fraser Lake, BC. Dates of operation: 1922 to 1976 
Source: Lejac Residential School Facebook Group

Not only were the residential institutions traumatizing for the students, but they had also left emotional, mental, physical, and spiritual scars on their families. Intergenerational trauma continues to undermine the wellbeing of Indigenous people today. Studies have shown that familial history of Indian Residential School (IRS) attendance has been linked to greater and more frequent effects of contemporary stressors, affecting well-being.²

Ways to support Residential School Survivors and families

Make a Donation.

You can assist the education and understanding of Indigenous knowledge and history in Canada by donating to the Anishinaabek Land Trust. With your support, we can better reach Residential School Survivors and their families to assist them in healing and growth. Your generous donations will allow us to bring forward memories, stories, knowledge and perspectives to interpret the real narrative of this nations’ history. 

Learn more about the residential school system and its generational impacts.

Sources:

¹Hanson, E., Gamez, D., & Manuel, A. 2020. The Residential School System. Indigenous Foundations. https://indigenousfoundations.arts.ubc.ca/residential-school-system-2020/

²Bombay, A., Matheson, K., & Anisman, H. 2014. The intergenerational effects of Indian Residential Schools: implications for the concept of historical trauma. Transcultural psychiatry, 51(3), 320–338. https://doi.org/10.1177/1363461513503380